Founding of the City Essay Example for Free

Founding of the City Essay Oslo is Norway’s capital city. The name Oslo was derived from the Old Norse word â€Å"†¦os† meaning mountain and lo meaning plain or river â€Å". Thus, Oslo can be described as a place that is located beneath the mountains. The city of Oslo was founded around1000 AD. The first evident settlement in Oslo took place in the 8th century. During the periods 1300 – 1600 AD, there were no significant buildings except for a few wooden houses. People of German origin may have settled along the Oslo Fjord who moved up to the north from mainland Europe (Zelko 63). The first people who inhabited Oslo lived in humble settings with the houses made of wooden and turf grass that was surrounded by pens or sheds for goats, sheep and cows. In 1286 Oslo became the city of Hansa league with close ties to the Rostock City, in northern Germany. Like all the other settlers of Norway, the people were grouped together in form of tribes with landowners meeting with his other landed neighbors in a public assembly called Thing. Legislative assemblies were called Lagtings (Zelko 63). During the Viking age, AD800-1000 Oslo settlers grew rapidly as it had become the center for trade and shipbuilding activities and later it earned the name the† Viking Capital† (Oslo 1). Viking means â€Å"a man from â€Å"Vik†, a huge bay between the Cape Lindesnes in Norway and the mouth of Gota River in Sweden (Britannica 1033). Norwegian Vikings, like other Vikings of Denmark and Sweden, were feared all over Europe as they had â€Å"superior ships and weapons as well developed military organization†. They were basically endowed with extraordinary hunger for adventure (Britannica 1034). Norwegian Vikings were known to be ruthless and brave fighters who killed their victims and greedily loots their conquered settlements and when they were done plundering destroyed the place with fire. They changed the face of Europe as they engaged in raiding and trade and then finally attracted by their conquered lands settled to live there. Their target places were mostly western European countries such as England, Scotland, and Iceland. Their active participation in trading had renewed the neglected European commerce of the middle Ages. Their contact with Western Europe was instrumental for their Christianization and eventually unification of Norway (Britannica 1033). In 885 the first Viking Monarch, Harold the Fair-haired united Norway (Halsey 239). During his reign the settlers of Norway, including Oslo, were commonly engaged in blood feuds, fightings that involve almost, if not all, disagreeing families. Even minor disputes can trigger the killing and maiming of both members of the quarreling families and if not settled can start an endless round of retaliation. The violence can be finally stopped when offending families pay the wronged families which they called â€Å"bot†. Sometimes family feuds were brought to the attention of the Lagtings who will decide the outcome of the disputes and impose penalties. The worst penalty they can give at that time was known as outlawry—a sentence that regarded the offender as if he died already. All his goods were taken away from him and he cannot exercise or claim any legal rights. In fact, anyone can kill him without facing the risk of penalty. These condemned people were left with no choice but to leave their homeland or live in the forest as an outlaw (Tseng 24). In 1050 Harald Hardrade or as commonly as King Harald III officially founded Oslo and made it the center of southern Norway. This site was located at the eastern side of the harbor on the left bank of the small Akers River (Halsey 239). Harald died in 1066 and his death ended the Viking period as raidings stopped (Norway 3). Oslo experienced a great era during the reign of Haakon V who was crowned in 1299. He decided to build the Akershus fortress in Olso to serve as his home with his wife Euphemia of Rugens, a Northern German princess (â€Å"Oslo† 1). He made Oslo the capital of Norway replacing Bergen. This time Oslo and the rest of Norway enjoyed relative peace (â€Å"Norway† 2007). In 1318 Norway was united with the kingdom of Sweden when Duke Erik of Sweden married Princess Ingebjorg, daughter of Queen Euphemia and Hakon V Magnusson. The unification of both countries was officially signed in the Bishops castle; now presently know as Oslo Ladergard (â€Å"Oslo: City† 2006). The saddest event that occurred in the early history of Oslo was the Black Death that terrorized the world in 1349. It was estimated that half of Oslo’s population died during the time of the Black Death or â€Å"bubonic† plague. Bubonic plague was carried by fleas in rats from England (â€Å"Oslo† 2006). Because of the loss of its inhabitants and damage to agriculture Norway united together with Denmark and Sweden via the Union of Kalmar 1397(â€Å"Norway† 2007). During this time Copenhagen, instead of Oslo, was selected as the actual capital of Norway. Consequently Oslo lost its political importance and was only regarded as a provincial administrative center while the kings lived in Copenhagen and Stockholm from 1400-1500 (â€Å"Oslo: City† 2006). In 1523, however, Sweden dropped out of the union, and weaker Norway was left in the care of Danish Kings (â€Å"Norway† 2007). Part 2 Modern Era Reformation Period Like the rest of mainland Europe, Oslo was greatly affected by the Lutheran Protestant Reformation of 1537 when the German Monk Martin Luther questioned the laws of Roman Catholic Church and sought to reform the religious beliefs of the Europeans. Oslo citizens were engaged in religious conflicts(Thodock 2003). The catholic bishop of Oslo, Hans Rev was converted to Protestantism despite the reluctance of the citizens ( â€Å"Oslo: City† 2006). Since Oslo had slightly lost its political and economic importance as a city at this time as it was being ruled by Denmark, most of the buildings constructed there were only made of wood. The city was easily destroyed by fire in 1624. King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway decided to move the town to the right bank of the Akers River and rebuild it near the Akershus Fortress. The city buildings were constructed in a Renaissance city style with rectangular blocks and renamed Christiania (Halsey). Scientific Revolution The scientific revolution changed the world’s beliefs entirely, and Norway in the heart of its Religious beliefs was proven wrong and questions concerning the scientific approach were answered. Copernicus first with his opinion on the heliocentric theory, Galileo second with proof of Copernicus theory, and Newton third with the laws of gravity to explain how and why the planets revolved around the sun. Enlightenment During the 1700’s the Age of Reason or the Enlightenment flourished in Europe particularly to the Norwegian trading partners of Great Britain and Holland. In these places people were trying to improve their lives with the use of reason instead of following traditional religious or the conventional accepted beliefs. Contact with the â€Å"enlightened† British and Dutch affected the daily life of the inhabitants of Christiania. Norwegian traders brought home with them not only the prized cargoes of tobacco, coffee, tea and spices but also enlightened and â€Å"innovative† ideas. They constructed luxurious houses with magnificent gardens in accordance with the style borrowed from western Europe (â€Å"Oslo: City† 2006). Napoleonic wars At first, Denmark and Norway attempted to remain neutral in the Napoleonic wars between France and England and their respective allies in 1805. However, in 1807 England attacked the entire Danish fleet and as a result Denmark joined the war together with France against Britain (Britannica 1034). Britain cut-off trading with Norway and set up a continental blockade against Denmark and Norway wherein British navy prevented the goods from both Norway and Denmark in reaching its trading partners . This action greatly affected the economy of Norway. The export of fish and timber from Christiania as well as the import of grain from Denmark were blocked. As a result, citizens of Christiania faced an economic crisis and suffered hunger. To end their trouble, Britain loosened up its ban on Norway in 1810-13(â€Å"Oslo† 1991). In 1814 the king of Denmark was forced to give up Norway to Sweden in a Treaty of Kiel when Napoleon I was defeated (â€Å"Oslo† 2006). Eager to rebuild their government the Norwegian created its first constitution on May 17 the same year and Christiania became the capital city. In time, Christiania replaced its rival Bergen as Norway’s largest city. The people celebrated with joy as Christiania was expected to reclaim its old glory without giving much thought at first that they were still under the control of a foreigner, Sweden. As a capital city, Christiania once again became important politically and economically. For its newly acquired role, new monumental buildings were erected as venue for important functions. . They were the Royal Palace, Bank of Norway and the stock exchange Oslo Bors. Later, most Christiania citizens joined with the rest of Norway in demanding for a complete control of their own affairs. They did not want to recognize the provisions of the Treaty of Kiel and instead preferred a Danish King to rule them. Because of the political unrest , Sweden was forced to make the Act of Union of 1815,that gave Norway the privilege of having its own army, navy and parliament (Storting) and was permitted to control their own internal affairs in exchange for their strict compliance to the Treaty of Kiel (â€Å"Oslo† 2006). Renaissance Period Because of their internal independence, Christiania’s economic and political power rose. By mid 1800’s, Christiania grew into a major administrative, economic and military center. The economic success brought about by the shipping and agricultural industry made Christiania a dominant economic city of Norway (World Book 1981). The site of rapid industrial revolution in Oslo started at the Aker River around 1840. The development of Industries relied in the electricity provided by this River. Old buildings along the River were demolished and replaced with concrete large textile industrial buildings . Because of the increased jobs offered by industries the population of Christiania increased as peasants and rural populace moved to the cities hoping find work. In the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, Christiania’s industrial workers, like most of European industrial cities, lived in poverty as a result of low income. They mostly lived in crowded houses meant for workers in where sanitation was bad. As a result, diseases were common and spread easily. To augment family income, the children aged below ten were forced to work in the industries, an environment that was not conducive for their well-balanced growth. In fact, industries were noisy and dusty. They caused water and air pollution. Because of this, the health of the children was at a risk and many contracted diseases. Resistance to diseases decreased as they lacked the time to play and sleep. In fact, schoolwork was unavoidably neglected (â€Å"Off â€Å"2007). Revolutions of 1848 The political revolutions in Europe in 1848 had increased the desire of Norway to demand for independence from Sweden. In the late 1800’s popular Norwegian playwrights Henrik Ibsen and Bjornstjerne Bjorjornson staged a play in Christiania’s theater with a theme about political hypocrisy, rights of women and social problems. These plays helped Norwegians develop a sense of nationalism. In 1901 the city of Christiania was selected by the notable Swedish inventor, Alfred Nobel to be the site for the awarding of the most prestigious Noble Peace Prize (Lundestad 2001). By 1905 Sweden granted independence to Norway and Christiania at last was freed from foreign interference that began 1300’s (Halsey 240). Industrial Revolution World War I was inevitable due to industrialization and the desire for each country had to become supreme grew. Firstly, relationships between the nations of the world were dramatically altered by the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century. Tensions between the industrial powers began to rise. The intensity between the industrial powers grew more and more as each country sought to expand its sphere of influence at the expense of others. Secondly, there was a growing desire by ethnic populations within the larger countries to become independent nations. Norway separated from Sweden and revolts occurred in colonies such as China, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Ireland. War broke out in the Balkans in 1912 and again in 1913, as Bulgaria, Serbia, Macedonia, and Greece fought first the Ottoman Empire and then Austria-Hungary. Lastly, Colonies around the world were a valuable asset for supporting the host countrys economy. The great European powers needed raw materials and outlets for their goods. They wanted to expand into new colonies while still protecting the ones they already had.

SWOT Analysis Indian Pharmaceutical Industry

SWOT Analysis Indian Pharmaceutical Industry Strengths 1. India is regarded as having an edge over China in terms of qualified, English-speaking manpower and fair protection of intellectual property rights supported by well-developed judicial system. (Appendix IV gives more information on IPR status in India). 2. India has skilled scientists/technicians/management personnel at affordable cost leading to low cost of innovation/ manufacturing/capex costs/ expenditure to run cGMP compliance facilities and high quality documentation and process understanding. 3. The country has well developed chemistry, R D and manufacturing infrastructure with proven track record in advanced chemistry capabilities, design of high tech manufacturing facilities and regulatory compliance. 4. The healthy domestic market with rising per capita expenditure is another significant strength enabling achievement of economies of scale. The country also has a strong marketing distribution network. 5. India is considered a desirable destination for off shoring of data management functions for clinical trials and also due to its rich biodiversity and strength in Chemistry which are essential for drug discovery. 6. The country has significant ability to circumvent API Patents. India has filed a number of non-infringing process patents. The country has a recent success track record in circumventing formulation patents. Proven Legal skills to evaluate IP and commercial strategies are available at least in select top companies. 7. The present domestic regulatory environment though in need of further improvement has been conducive to the growth of an emerging pharmaceutical industry. Weaknesses 1. Low investments in innovative RD continue to be a major weakness of Indian pharmaceutical industry. 2. Diffused nature of the Indian pharmaceutical industry means that only about 20 to 30 companies are large enough to bear the transactions costs associated with sustained exports to and compliance with entry regulations of the developed markets. 3. Majority of companies lack the ability to compete with MNCs for New Drug Discovery, Research and commercialization of molecules on a worldwide basis due to lack of resources. 4. Strong linkages between industry and academia which are essential for growth of the industry is lacking in India. 5. Comparatively small domestic market size due to low medical and healthcare expenditure in the country. 6. The country has at times shown inadequate regulatory framework or compliance and enforcement regime, reflected in occurrences such a production of spurious or low quality drugs. 7. Competency in API/Formulation, intellectual property creation, facility design and maintenance, global regulatory affairs, legal intricacies, and managing international work force is limited to a few players among the big players. 8. Rapidly increasing costs of skilled manpower such as scientists/ regulatory compliance personnel / pharmaceutical lawyers/ international business development personnel is pushing up the cost of innovation. Ability to evaluate contracts/alliances etc., is available only in top companies. Significant lacuna in this area exists and companies are falling into traps created by the competitors. Institutionalisation of learning in the following areas is restricted: Regulatory affairs knowledge for different countries and continents Process and product patents procedures knowledge for different countries and continents. 9. Sales and marketing knowledge is inadequate due to lack of understanding of international Pharmaceutical marketing/pricing practices and market environment in various countries. 10. Inadequate manufacturing practices in comparison to those accepted in developed world such as change of API source, change of manufacturing locations, equipment etc, with out proven stability/ bioequivalence may be creating inadequate technical work force for exports. The national drug regulatory system though evolved substantially, has been in the need of strengthening its manpower and systems requirements. 11. Inadequate emphasis on Biosciences in education system leading to slower development in areas related to Biology giving away advantage to China. Opportunities India is faced with significant export opportunities, such as: i. US$40 billion worth of drugs in the U.S.A and US$25 billion worth of drugs in Europe are expected to go off patent soon. Assocham estimates that Indian manufacturers may capture 30 percent of that market. This translates to an opportunity of US$19.5bn which is significant considering the countrys current exports of approx. US$7.25bn. However the figures need to be appropriately deflated since Indian opportunity will lie in generics equivalent of branded or patented drugs, which would be cheaper. ii. Generic launches by Indian manufacturers have increased in the United States from 93 in 2003 to 250 by 2008. iii. Compulsory licensing provisions negotiated in the Doha Round, allows for countries to import cheaper generic versions of patented drugs in the interests of public health. Thailand and South Africa have already started such initiatives from which Indian firms have benefited. 2. Due to the cost advantage in contract manufacturing Research multi-national companies find it compelling to shift their production bases to countries offering such cost advantage. Typical of the industry which requires approval of manufacturing facilities by various drug regulatory agencies of the world involving a very high cost, once such business finds base in India it would continue with it for at least one half to two decades. 3. Licensing deals with MNCs for NCEs (New Chemical Entities) and NDDS (New Drug Delivery Systems) offer new opportunities for Indian manufacturers. 4. Marketing alliances for MNC products in domestic and international market is another emerging opportunity. 5. Contract manufacturing arrangements with MNCs is estimated at 10% of patented markets estimated at US$450bn which is approx. US$45bn. 6. India has a very high potential for developing as a centre for international clinical trials due to its rich diversity. 7. India can become a niche player in global pharmaceutical RD and possibilities exist for expansion of biotechnology generics (also known as bio-similars) and biopharmaceuticals. 8. There is a possibility of greater returns from an Indian entry into mature and more remunerative markets like Brazil, Japan, CIS, Russia, etc. 9. The Work Programme for the European Medicines Agency 2007 identifies greater co-operation with India especially in the field of traditional and herbal medicines and remedies. Emerging preference for traditional medicines and herbs in the developed markets including lifestyle products and food supplements also presents an opportunity for the country in traditional medicinal systems Herbal based products. 10. A rise in life expectancy generally, and increase in the population of the old, particularly in the developed world is causing higher expenditure from respective national health budgets compelling them to move to cheaper APIs and formulations which are Indias forte. 11. Unleashing of a plethora of preferential trading arrangements, both bilateral and regional, offers opportunities for India to negotiate preferential access to partner markets for Indian pharmaceuticals in the long term and in a sustainable manner. Threats 1. Product patent regime poses serious challenge to domestic industry unless it invests in research and development. 2. RD efforts of Indian pharmaceutical companies are hampered by lack of enabling regulatory requirement. 3. Drug Price Control Order puts unrealistic ceilings on product prices and profitability. 4. Export effort is hampered by procedural hurdles in India as well as non-tariff barriers imposed abroad. For example: i. Indian manufacturers are prevented from bidding for government contracts as US permits bidders only from countries that are signatories to WTO Agreement on Government Procurement. ii. Indian manufacturers have to submit separate state level applications for marketing drugs in the United States as there is no nation-wide system of application even where FDA approval has been received. 5. Lowering of tariff protection has increased competition in domestic markets resulting in erosion of profitability. 6. Mergers and acquisitions by foreign companies particularly multinational corporations of afew Indian generic leaders may completely change the direction of Indias pharmaceutical movement neutralising its thrust on generics and cost competitiveness. 7. The generics market in developed countries may be affected by a number of factors: i. The release of authorized generics by major drug manufacturers. ii. New mid-sized players, establishing themselves in the generics market. iii. Increased competition due to newer Chinese and East European manufacturers. (E.g. there has been massive state level investment by China in the biotechnology sector though at present India still has the edge due to IP laws.) iv. TAs entered into by the United States of America with third countries (e.g. the Morocco-U.S.A FTA) may be harmful to Indian pharmaceutical exports because of provisions for increases in patent terms, etc. The United States enters into a number of FTAs with different countries and while the exact text of these agreements differ from country to country, each of these agreements contains provisions which can be damaging to Indian exporters of pharmaceuticals partly also because of their provisions on patents. These FTAs contain a large number of provisions which increase patent terms for pharmaceuticals by allowing for patentability of new uses of discovered inventions and by increasing patent terms by taking into account the time taken to process claims (evergreening). These provisions go beyond TRIPS and hence it may not be possible to challenge these under the WTO Dispute Resolution process. However, the compatibility of these provisions with Article XXIV of the GATT needs to be examined. 8. Specific non-tariff and para-tariff barriers being increasingly adopted by other countries such as long transaction time taken for registration of drugs, insistence on completing long process for registration when the drug may actually have gone through the most rigorous process of registration such as the USFDA; insistence on allowing imports of only those drugs which are registered in some developed countries, etc. PORTERS FIVE FORCES MODEL (a) INDUSTRY COMPETITION The Indian Pharmaceutical Industry is highly fragmented with around 250-300 manufacturing and formulation units in organized sector which contribute to only 70% of the market share of the total sales in the country. The concentration ratio (proportion of total industry output by the largest firm in the industry) for the industry is very low. Also government subsidies have led to the proliferation of many small players. Since the Product Patents were not valid in the country till 2005, the differentiation in the product is very low. The key driver in this industry is the cost-competitiveness. After 2005, major MNCs like Pfizer GSK started introducing newer products in the market thereby increasing competition in the industry. Many small players that are focused on a particular region have a better hand on the distribution channel, making it easier to succeed, albeit in a limited way. An important fact is that, pharmaceutical is a stable market and its growth rate generally tracks the economic growth of the country with some multiple (1.2 times average in India). Though volume growth has been consistent over a period of time value growth has not followed in tandem. Earlier it was easy for Indian pharmaceutical companies to imitate pharmaceutical products discovered by MNCs at a lower cost and make good profit. But today the scene is different with the arrival of the patent regime 2005 which has forced Indian companies to rethink its strategies and to invest more on RD. Also contract research has assumed more importance now. (b) BARGAINING POWER OF BUYERS The unique feature of pharmaceutical industry is that the end user of the product is different from the influencer (read doctor). The consumer has no choice but to buy what doctor says. However, when we look at the buyers power, we look at the influence they have on the prices of the product. In pharmaceutical industry, the buyers are scattered and they as such do not wield much power in the pricing of the products. Due to the extremely fragmented nature of industry government policies like DPCO ( Drug Price Order Control), 1970 under which the power to control prices is with the NPPA ( National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority) the low power of buyers does not have much effect on the manufacturers. Except in generic OTC medicines, the buyer does not normally switch medicines. (c) BARGAINING POWER OF SUPPLIERS The pharmaceutical industry depends upon several organic chemicals. The chemical industry is again very competitive and fragmented. The chemicals used in the pharmaceutical industry are largely a commodity. The suppliers have very low bargaining power and the companies in the pharmaceutical industry can switch from their suppliers without incurring a very high cost. However, what can happen is that the supplier can go for forward integration to become a pharmaceutical company. Companies like Orchid Chemicals and Sashun Chemicals were basically chemical companies who turned themselves into pharmaceutical companies. The fragmented nature of the organic chemicals industry prevents it from having much bargaining power over the manufacturers as the switching cost is low for the manufacturers. (d) BARRIERS TO ENTRY Threat of new entrants in the Indian Pharmaceutical sector during pre-2005 era used to be low as the capital requirement for the industry used to be very low from 1970s till 2005 because of the absence of product patents and heavy dependence on reverse engineering or Process Patent phenomenon but post 2005 it has become a huge burden on the part of new entrants to establish Manufacturing facilities of International Regulatory standards to tap the potential of generic exports and domestic consumption demand . That major barriers to entry are : The presence of economies of scale in manufacturing, RD, marketing, sales etc capital requirement financial requirements. The existing companies have advantage in terms of costs involved in launching new drugs formulations. The new companies would find it difficult to achieve this. Differentiation of products from the existing products in the market creating brand awareness in the minds of doctors pharmacists. New entrants will face difficulties in gaining trust of doctors/patients and they also need to develop efficient distribution channels preferred arrangements with doctors/pharmacists. Regulatory policies including patents, regulatory standards. The Indian Patent Act, 1970 recognized process but not product patents. The introduction of Product Patent 2005 of TRIPS part of WTO agreement has led to huge barriers for potential entrants. But to be noted it is unlikely to discourage new entrants, as market for generics will be huge in the near future as the demand for generics by all the developed economies has increased by leaps and bounds as their governments are drawing plans to effectively manage the health expenditure budget by switching from branded drugs to generic versions. (e)THREAT OF SUBSTITUTES This is one of the great advantages of the pharmaceutical industry. Whatever happens, demand for pharmaceutical products continues and the industry thrives. One of the key reasons for high competitiveness in the industry is that as an ongoing concern, pharmaceutical industry seems to have an infinite future. However, in recent times the advances made in the field of biotechnology, can prove to be a threat to the synthetic pharmaceutical industry. Also in developing countries like India, the traditional medicines also play a major substituting role. CONCLUSION This model gives a fair idea about the industry in which a company operates and the various external forces that influence it. These five forces of competition interact to determine the characteristics and the attractiveness of an industry. The strongest forces become dominant in determining profitability and become the focal points of strategy formulation. However, it must be noted that any industry is not static in nature. Its dynamic and over a period of time the model, which we have used to analyse the pharmaceutical industry may itself evolve. Going forward, we foresee increasing competition in the industry but the form of competition will be different. It will be between large players (with economies of scale) and it may be possible that some kind of oligopoly or cartels come into play. This is owing to the fact that the industry will move towards consolidation. The larger players in the industry will survive with their proprietary products and strong franchisee. In the Indian context, companies like Cipla, Ranbaxy and Dr.Reddys are likely to be key players. Smaller fringe players, who have no differentiating strengths, are likely to either be acquired or cease to exist. The barriers to entry will increase going forward. The change in the patent regime has made sure that new proprietary products come up making imitation difficult. The players with huge capacity will be able to influence substantial power on the fringe players by their aggressive pricing thereby creating hindrance for the smaller players. Economies of scale will play an important part too. Besides government will have a bigger role to play. PEST ANALYSIS To understand the implications of the environment on any industry it is imperative to study the four cardinal influencers on the industry namely Political, Economic, Social and Technological factors. It is rather unfortunate that in India these factors have a rather disproportionate influence on the functioning of a commercial organization. From the days of independence the business environment has been overly regulated by a handful of bureaucrats, middlemen, businessmen and politicians. Its only a decade since the country has seen an emergence of a political thought that encourages free enterprise. A welcome change indeed! (P)olitical Factors 1. Today there is political uncertainty in the air. A combination of diverse political thought have got together to cobble together a rag-tag coalition, that is riddle with ideological contradictions. Therefore, any consistent political or economic policy can not be expected. This muddies the investment field. 2. The Minister in charge of the industry has been threatening to impose even more stringent Price Control on the industry than before. This is throwing many an investment plan into the doldrums. 3. DPCO which is the bible for the industry has in effect worked contrary to the stated objectives. DPCO nullifies the market forces from encouraging competitive pricing of goods dictated by the market. Now the pricing is determined by the Government based on the approved costs irrespective of the real costs. 4. Effective January, 2005 the country goes in for the IPR (Intellectual Property Rights) regime, popularly known as the Patent Act. This Act will impact the Pharmaceutical Industry the most. Thus far an Indian company could escape paying a patent fee to the inventor of a drug by manufacturing it using a different chemical route. Indian companies exploited this law and used the reverse-engineering route to invent a lot of alternate manufacturing methods. A lot of money was saved this way. This also encouraged competing company to market their versions of the same drug. That meant that the impurities and trace elements found in different brands of the same substance were different both in qualification as well as in quantum. Therefore different brands of the same medicine were truly different. Here Branding actually meant quality and a purer brand actually had purer active ingredient and lesser or less toxic impurities. Product patent regime will eliminate all this. Now, a patented drug would be manufactured using the same chemical route and would be manufactured by the inventor or his licentiates using the chemicals with same specifications. Therefore, all the brands of the same active ingredient would not have any difference in purity and impurities. The different brands would have to compete on the basis of non input-related innovations such as packaging, color, flavors, Excipients etc. This is the biggest change the environment is going to impose on the industry. The marketing effort would be now focused on logistics, communications, economy of operation, extra-ingredient innovations and of course pricing. 5. In Pharma industry there is a huge PSU segment which is chronically sick and highly inefficient. The Government puts the surpluses generated by efficient units into the price equalization account of inefficient units thereby unduly subsidizing them. On a long term basis this has made practically everybody inefficient. 6. Effective the January, 2005 the Government has shifted from charging the Excise Duty on the cost of manufacturing to the MRP thereby making the finished products more costly. Just for a few extra bucks the current government has made many a life saving drugs unaffordable to the poor. 7. The Government provides extra drawbacks to some units located in specified area, providing them with subsidies that are unfair to the rest of the industry, bringing in a skewed development of the industry. As a results Pharma units have come up at place unsuitable for a best cost manufacturing activity. (E)conomic Factors 1. India spends a very small proportion of its GDP on healthcare ( A mere 1% ). This has stunted the demand and therefore the growth of the industry. 2. Per capita income of an average Indian is low ( Rs. 12,890 ), therefore, spending on the healthcare takes a low priority. An Indian would visit a doctor only when there is an emergency. This has led to a mushrooming of unqualified doctors and spread of non-standardized medication. 3. The incidence of Taxes are very high. There is Excise Duty ( State Central), Custom Duty, Service Tax, Profession Tax, License Fees, Royalty, Pollution Clearance Tax, Hazardous substance (Storage Handling) license, income tax, Stamp Duty and a host of other levies and charges to be paid. On an average it amounts to no less than 40-45% of the costs. 4. The number of Registered Medical practitioners is low. As a result the reach of Pharmaceuticals is affected adversely. 5. There are only 50,00,000 Medical shops. Again this affects adversely the distribution of medicines and also adds to the distribution costs. 6. India is a high interest rate regime. Therefore the cost of funds is double that in America. This adds to the cost of goods. 7. Adequate storage and transportation facilities for special drugs is lacking. A study had indicated that nearly 60% of the Retail Chemists do not have adequate refrigeration facilities and store drugs under sub-optimal conditions. This affects the quality of the drugs administered and of course adds to the costs. 8. India has poor roads and rail network. Therefore, the transportation time is higher. This calls for higher inventory carrying costs and longer delivery time. All this adds to the invisible costs. Its only during the last couple of years that good quality highways have been constructed. (S)ocio-cultural Factors 1. Poverty and associated malnutrition dramatically exacerbate the incidence of Malaria and TB, preventable diseases that continue to play havoc in India decades after they were eradicated in other countries. 2. Poor Sanitation and polluted water sources prematurely end the life of about 1 million children under the age of five every year. 3. In India people prefer using household treatments handed down for generations for common ailments. 4. The use of magic/tantrics/ozhas/hakims is prevalent in India. 5. Increasing pollution is adding to the healthcare problem. 6. Smoking, gutka, drinking and poor oral hygiene is adding to the healthcare problem. 7. Large joint families transmit communicable diseases amongst the members. 8. Cattle-rearing encourage diseases communicated by animals. 9. Early child bearing affects the health standards of women and children. 10. Ignorance of inoculation and vaccination has prevented the eradication of diseases like polio, chicken-pox, small-pox, mumps and measles. 11. People dont go in for vaccination due superstitious beliefs and any sort of ailment is considered as a curse from God for sins committed. (T)echnological Factors 1. Advanced automated machines have increased the output and reduced the cost. 2. Computerization has increased the efficiency of the Pharma Industry. 3. Newer medication, molecules and active ingredients are being discovered. As of January 2005, the Government of India has more than 10,000 substances for patenting. 4. Ayurveda is a well recognized science and it is providing the industry with a cutting edge. 5. Advances in Bio-technology, Stem-cell research have given India a step forward. 6. Humano-Insulin, Hepatitis B vaccines, AIDS drugs and many such molecules have given the industry a pioneering status. 7. Newer drug delivery systems are the innovations of the day. 8. The huge unemployment in India prevents industries from going fully automatic as the Government as well as the Labor Unions voice complains against such establishments.

45 47 Stella Street English Literature Essay

45 47 Stella Street English Literature Essay In Elizabeth Honeys childrens text 45 + 47 Stella Street and everything that happened (1995), 11 year old Henni shares her view of the events that take place in Stella Street. She is a reliable narrator as it is intended for her story to be trusted by the reader, evident with honest statements during her introduction of telling the implied reader that she may not be the cleverest or the prettiestà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ but is the tallest (Honey, 1995, p.5). The novel clearly shows a separation of classes within the neighbourhood, with Hennis family and friends being portrayed as the preferable middle-class, the Phonies evidently belonging to a higher class and characters such as the Brown boys being lower class. The implied reader of the book is middle-classed Australian children as they can relate to Henni, see themselves in her position and understand the common Australian terms such as milo and walk-a-thon. This implied reader experiences the events through Hennis point of view, feeling h er emotions and seeing things as they appear to her, positioning the implied reader to share Hennis emotions and therefore support her throughout the novel. The Phonies are seen as the high-class members of the neighbourhood, although later found to be criminals. The residents of Stella Street see their behaviour as being unusual as they renovate, travel regularly, constantly purchase new items and use expensive solicitors rather than confronting the issue themselves. The neighbours evidently believe the Phonies were made of money (p.23) and could not understand why they felt the need to replace belongings constantly and get rid of things much too good to throw out (p.87). The Phonies are mocked and criticised by the other members of Stella Street for their evidently excessive use of money with Danielle believing they must be throwing furniture out for rubbish collection as it was at least four months old so must be time for a complete change (p.86). They are also criticised for their formal letters of complaint from solicitors, with the other residents of Stella Street wondering why they could not simply talk about it rather than coming out guns blazing with all this solicitors letter nonsense (p.23). This makes the Phonies seem as cruel, unreasonable people. All of this along with the fact that they turn out to be criminals, imply a negative connotation on the upper class population as they are seen to be irrational, harsh beings who do not follow the law or make a reasonable attempt to be humane with the rest of society. In comparison to the superiority of the Phonies, were the Brown boys and Donnas rent-a-kid children who belonged to far more inferior class. The Brown boys were renowned for being trouble and are not trusted by the dominant class in the neighbourhood, promoting the idea that lower classes are not trustworthy or worth the respect of others. The fact that the Brown boys lie to the police in regards to their whereabouts on the night of the spotlight game, suggests that lower class people are liars, with Donna even implying this to the children by warning them not to bank on the Brown boys (p.73). Similarly to the misbehaving Brown boys, the dog catcher W.P Burgess is a cruel lower class member. Henni suggests that he was probably a garbo or the school bully (p.43) before he became a dog catcher and describes him as having a nasty temper (p.43). Burgesss poor temper and heartlessness suggest that the lower class are angry, miserable people. The troubled children Donna brings home from he r social work are seen to the Stella Street children in particular as inferior and off the planet'(p.24), Henni nicknaming these children as rent-a-kid'(p.25), suggesting that they are incapable of being in a stable, loving home. Although the implied reader may sympathise with the lower class families in the novel, many negative connotations are suggested in the text with the inferior families being promoted as unreliable, untrustworthy and cruel. The promoted preferable class in the novel is the dominant middle-class of Henni and her family and friends. Henni describes her family by saying were not rich but were not poor (p.135) suggesting that they have stable living conditions and although may not have an excessive amount of money, are able to provide and care for their family with a sustainable income. This middle class population is positioned to be seen as the desirable class to the implied reader, as they are pleased with their lives and have loving friends and family to support them. The majority of Stella Street agree on the fact that there is something peculiar about the Phonies and do not want the high class snobs living in their neighbourhood. The fact that the middle class characters in the childrens novel are all friendly and positive promotes the class. Mr Nic, for example, is described by Henni as a cheerful chap (p.7) and is loved by all the neighbours. Throughout the novel Mr Nic is always willing to help, wh ether it is babysitting Briquette or assisting the children in their mission of discovery more about the Phonies. Mr Nic is the perfect example of the ideal middle classed individual with in the text. The closure of the text plays a major part in suggesting the idealisation of the middle classed population. The happy ending presented in the text shows the high class Phonies being sent to jail and the lower class Brown boys and W.P Burgess disappearing, illustrating how the high and low class populations are far less successful and discontent. A new family moves in to Stella Street who can be interpreted as being a middle-class family by the implied reader as they seem to immediately fit in and are liked by the members of Stella Street. The fact that all of the middle classed characters in the novel achieve a joyful ending suggests that it is only the middle classed population who are truly successful and therefore promotes the desirability of this class. 45 +47 Stella Street and everything that happens strongly implies that the middle class population is the ideal class with characters such as Henni and her family and friends living a satisfying, successful life as pleasant, loving people. In contrast, the upper class Phonies and lower class characters such as the Brown boys, are shown negatively throughout the text with traits such as anger, dishonesty and cruelty being connected to them. The implied reader is positioned to believe that Henni and her family are the ideal characters and therefore the middle class is the desirable class.

Effects of Divorce on Children :: Papers

Effects of Divorce on Children Divorce has become an unquestionable remedy for the miserably married. Currently, the United States has the highest divorce rate in the world. Every year in the US approximately one million children experience divorce which, is about one in every three children (Amato 21). The effects of divorce can be tremendously painful for both children and adults. Children of divorce are more likely to suffer from behavioral, social, academic, and psychological problems than children raised in two-parent families. The actual separation of the family will be the initial crisis that a child must deal with but many issues such as economic hardship, moving, and other major issues may follow. Sarah McLanahan, a leading divorce researcher at Princeton University, has identified moving as one of the most damaging effects of divorce for children. That is because the children lose invaluable ties to friends that may be able to help them cope with the new stress they are faced with. McLanahan and Gary Sandefur conclude that up to 40% of the increased risk of being a high school drop out is attributed to moving as a result of divorce (Chira 01E). The short term effects or divorce vary depending on the age and sex of most children. Boys and girls handle the break-ups with different emotions for example, some get angry, some feel sad, and some may experience feelings of rejection. Preschool age children, ages three to five, many times react with feelings of anger and sadness. Many of the preschool age children will regress after the initial shock of the separation. Signs of regression could be once again asking for a security blanket, bedwetting, returning to thumb sucking, needing help feeding themselves, or hitting their siblings. The children in this age group are more anxious and insecure than a child growing up in a two-parent home (Teyber 11). The majority of the children in the preschool age-group have abandonment issues and fear that since one parent has left the home that the other may move out as well. As the children get older the effects the divorce has on them is different but no less traumatizing. School aged children between the ages of six to eight seem to have an especially difficult time dealing with their parents splitting up. Generally, the boys in this age group tend to be more bothered than the girls.

Why Should I Be Moral? :: essays research papers fc

Why Should I Be Moral? The question of morality proves to be a complex interrogatory. Should I be moral? If I should be, then why? Why is morality important to society? An assumption can be made that morals derive from a purely religious perspective or the Golden Rule approach. We are told that it is right to be moral. This is an ineffective answer, since it does not apply to someone outside the moral circle (Olsen, 79). This in mind, there is really no way to prove this too a person who wants to know why he/she should be moral. According to Olen, the only answer to them would be "because you are". Happiness could also be included in the list of moral reasons. I personally feel that this is the best supported reason for being moral. Although there will be times when the moral decision will not be pleasurable, it will eventually lead to happiness. Morality is important for society as a whole, as it makes life livable. Now expanding on the happiness theory, I will discuss the ideas of Aristotle. Aristotle believed that happiness is the quality of whole human life. We all have misconceptions about happiness. Most of us believe that happiness is experiencing a lively feeling of joy or pleasant feelings. We can be happy at one moment, but not the next. Aristotle on the other hand said that true happiness includes pleasures, joys, and successes as well as many pains, griefs, and troubles in ones life. A happy life is not cause by the pleasures we've had, nor marred by the displeasures we've had. Aristotle also contended that children could not be happy as the requirement for happiness was a complete life. For instance, an old man looking back on his life and being able to say that it was good, is happiness. Aristotle defined the things that make happiness as health, wealth, friendship, and good moral character. Aristotle stated that happiness was also the highest good leaving nothing more to be desired. Life is made perfect by possession of all good things. We seek happiness for its own sake. All others are sought for happiness. Aristotle believed to become happy one must have good character and be willing to suffer to obtain the greater good later on. We should seek the good in the long run. Most men/women will not do this. We take the immediate pleasure. Most people think that happiness is unique to each person. Aristotle believed that there is only one true conception and that it holds the same for all humans. Power is not an attribute to happiness because

The Effects Of Scientific Discoveries And Darwin’s Theories To Thomas Hardy’s: “Hap”

The poem will be interpreted that the agony of the writer will diminish only if he will identify someone who is the source of all the agony that he suffered. He was looking for somebody to blame for his shortcomings, agonies, pains, and suffering (Davidson). The presence of somebody in existence will be beneficial to him so that he can blame and point to it all the antagonism shaped by all the pain that he experience (â€Å"Thomas Hardy (1840-1928)†). But frustrations set in for him.He was unable to find out somebody that existed to blame after (â€Å"Hap†). He was not able to prove that there is someone that controlled all the possibilities that happened to his life. Later on, he only said that all was a product of unplanned possibilities. Just like he was only tripped. Accidental possibility is liable for his agony was the focus of the poem and there is no scientific reason behind everything that is happening to one’s life. Just like Jesus Christ, he exists in the minds of many people but his biological proof is not yet clear.The church created him as super natural being but in fact he never existed. Centuries had passed but no one can justify that he indeed existed. It was all a product of stories that was passed through generations. Stories that later on became factual in the beliefs of people. It is only a myth that had eventually developed like a principle or a law that is unbreakable through time. A principle or a law that can be acceptable even we are already in the information age.This mindset is opposite to the idea of biological theory that all things came from something, evolved and develop through time. And not just a single possibility that we keep on believing although we know that it is not true. Darwin’s Theory was a product of science that is more believable than legends (â€Å"Charles Darwin†). It is a result of biological evolution with scientific basis. Scientific basis that is more reliable than methodolo gical or logical basis.

Pathophysiology Of Hypertension Therapeutic Intervention Health And Social Care Essay

The normal scope of blood force per unit area in a healthy individual is 120/90 millimeter Hg. Clinically a individual is said to be hypertensive if their blood force per unit area is 140/90 millimeter Hg or supra, on two separate occasions. ( 1 & A ; 2 ) The left ventricle of a hypertensive individual is enlarged due to the increased work burden on the bosom. This increases the oxygen demand of the cardiac musculus. In order to run into this increased demand, the coronary circulation increases the cardiac end product ( 1 ) Imbalance in cardiac end product volume and peripheral opposition leads to a rise in blood force per unit area. ( 3 ) . Cardiac end product is defined as the volume of blood pumped from the bosom and Entire peripheral opposition is the opposition of flow of blood in smaller arteriolas and ) viscousness of blood ( 1 & A ; 2 ) There are two chief types of high blood pressure viz. primary ( indispensable high blood pressure and secondary high blood pressure. In primary high blood pressure, high blood force per unit area is non accompanied by an implicit in disease. Secondary high blood pressure is a rise in arterial blood force per unit area due to an implicit in disease, examples include nephritic and neurotic diseases Early surveies of high blood pressure showed that there was a little addition in cardiac end product before any alteration in peripheral opposition. ( 3 ) From these findings it was suggested that the cardic end product ab initio rises due to sodium and H2O retension, this leads to an autoregulatory rise in peripheral opposition. The cardiac end product so fell once more as a consequence of cardiovascular physiological reactions, nevertheless the blood force per unit area remained somewhat elevated To understand the pathophysiology of high blood pressure, it is of import to understand the mechanisms involved in modulating blood pressure.i.e. The homeostatic mechanisms that taken topographic point ( 92 ) Baroreceptors detect a alteration in force per unit area. Figure 1 shows the neurogenic mechanism triggered by high blood pressure. When the force per unit area rises an afferent signal is sent to the vasomotor system, in the myelin oblongata of the encephalon. This consequences in cut downing motorial sympathetic activity taking in arterial dilation and decreased myocardial contractility, therefore seeking to return force per unit area to its original value. In chronic high blood pressure the homeostatic physiological reactions are reset to a higher degree [ 4 ] The mechanism of indispensable high blood pressure is non wholly known and is a subject that is presently under research. ( 88 )Assorted factors regulate blood force per unit area, these include.A break in one or more of these could be a possible cause for high blood pressure[ 3 ] Factors that are linked to primary high blood pressure are environmental factors, organic structure weight, intoxicant consumption, dietetic factors, exeThere is a important relationship between kidney disease and high blood pressure.Renin is an enzyme, and is chiefly found in the juxtaglomerular setup in the kidney. ( Fig )The secernment of renin is initiated by a lessening in perfusion force per unit area in the kidney and alterations in Na concentration of the distal cannular fluid.As shown in fig. Renin catabolises angiotensinogen, a protein from the liver, and signifiers angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is activated by angiotonin change overing enzyme and as a consequence it yields Angiotensin II. Angioten sin II is 40 times more powerful in raising blood force per unit area as compared to noradrenalin. The renin-angiotensin system is besides thought to modulate the elimination of Na by the kidneyPhaeochromocytoma is a tumor of the adrenal secretory organ which causes increased secernment of the endocrine epinephrine. This leads to an increased arterial force per unit area. This is an illustration of secondary high blood pressureReflux neuropathy is a nephritic disease where the kidneys get disrupted due to the backward flow of piss in the kidney. The image below shows an affected arteria ( 172 )( 3 )Factors that increase the hazard of[ 10 ] ..et Al suggested that high blood pressure should be seen as a multifactorial inflammatory disease. The survey showed that inflammatory processes play an of import function in prolonging systematic high blood pressure [ 10 ]( 600 )There are legion interventions for high blood pressure.Primary high blood pressureWhile sing the usage of drugs, we sh ould do certain that the drug is†¦ i.e. its benefits outweighs its side-effects.Figure aa‚ ¬ † demoing systems responsible for the homeostatic control of blood force per unit area together with mark sites for anti-hypertensive drugsBeginning: [ 6 ]As shown in Fig the sympathetic nervous system, the rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and the tonically-active endothelium derived autocoids are the chief systems responsible in the ordinance of high blood pressure. [ 6 ]Mentioning to fig and postpone 1[ 6 ][ 11 ] Recently†¦ et Al performed a complete Pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic and clinical rating of the drug aliskiren. The survey showed that Aliskiren was a prospective anti-hypertensive drug [ 11 ][ 7 ] †¦ et Al showed that usage of initial combination therapy of the drugs aliskiren and amlodipine for the control of blood force per unit area improves early eA?A ¬a‚ ¬ectiveness and is more effectual to each monotherapy in early control of bl ood force per unit area [ 7 ]The intervention of high blood pressure by drugs is most effectual when accompanied with lifestyle alterations including regular exercising, healthy diet, weight and intoxicant decrease and no smoke.Drug intervention for high blood pressure is non really effectual in all patients..et Al showed that pharmacological intervention was merely effectual on tierce of patients enduring from high blood pressure. The survey concluded that there was a important relationship between psychological factors and hapless high blood pressure control [ 8 ][ 12 ] †¦ showed that 60-70 % of high blood pressure in grownups is caused by fleshiness and suggested mechanisms such as insulin opposition, Na keeping, increased sympathetic nervous system activity, activation of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone, and altered vascular map are obesity-relatedhigh blood pressure. †¦ suggested that consciousness of the disease is the most reasonable long term solution [ 12 ]( 183 )In decision, high blood pressure is a multifactorial disease, that is caused by a figure of factors including environmental factors, genetic sciences, lifestyle etc. The mechanism of high blood pressure is a subject which is still being researched. Depending upon the implicit in disease and the badness, secondary high blood pressure may be able to be treated surgically.Primary high blood pressure if diagnosed at an early phase can be combated with medical specialties and simple alterations like regular exercising, healthy low salt and low fat diet, reduced alcohol consumption etc.( 80 )